POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Political philosophy is the philosophical study of governance, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of social actors and public institutions, as well as the relationships among them. Its topics include politics, freedom, justice, property, law, and the enforcement of laws by authority: what they are, what makes a government legitimate, which rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, what law is, and what rights and duties citizens have toward a legitimate government.
Political science, the scientific study of politics, is generally used in the singular, but in French and Spanish it is used in the plural (respectively sciences politiques and ciencias políticas), perhaps reflecting the eclectic nature of the discipline.
Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy, but it has also played an important role in political science, historically focusing both on the history of political thought and on contemporary political theory (from normative political theory to various critical approaches).
In the Oxford Handbook of Political Theory (2009), political philosophy is described as an interdisciplinary effort whose center of gravity lies at the extreme end of the humanities, with the discipline of political science, happily still undisciplined, forming its context.
For a long time, the challenge for the identity of political philosophy has been how to productively position itself in three types of relation:
- In relation to the academic disciplines of political science, history, and philosophy.
- Between the world of actual politics and its more abstract and theoretical register.
- Between canonical political theory and new resources, such as feminist theory, discourse analysis, film and political culture theory, media studies, neuroscience, environmental studies, behavioral sciences, and economics, increasingly drawn upon by political theorists.
ANCIENT GREECE
Western political philosophy originates in Ancient Greek philosophy, where the linguistic terms themselves were born. Philosophy, literally “love of wisdom” (from Greek philéin, to love, and sophía, wisdom), emerged in Greece in the 6th century BCE during the classical period. Politics, from pòlis (πόλις, city-state), refers to what Plato asked in his work Politéia (translated as Republic, though this is a Latin term): how to govern the social complexity of a city in the best way.
Political philosophy dates back at least to Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into five descending categories of stability and morality: monarchy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. Plato’s extremely important work in political philosophy was followed by Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and Politics, in which he wrote that politics is the end of ethical life. Associative life is a natural necessity for humans: Aristotle defines man as a political animal (zoòn politikòn), unlike beasts, which can live in isolation. Aristotle adds that man has the right to pursue happiness, and politics must provide the democratic tools to achieve it.
ANCIENT INDIA
Ancient Indian political philosophy made a clear distinction between nation and state, religion and state. Hindu state constitutions evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevailing social institutions. State institutions were broadly divided into government, diplomacy, administration, defense, law and order. The main governing body of these states consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander-in-Chief, and Chief Priest.
Chanakya, a 4th-century BCE Indian political philosopher, authored the Arthashastra, which outlines political science for a wise ruler, foreign policy and war strategies, a system of state espionage and surveillance, and economic stability. Chanakya cites authorities such as Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and describes himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka as his immediate predecessor. Another influential Indian political treatise is the Sukra Neeti. An example of legal codification in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.
ANCIENT CHINA
Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, particularly with Confucius in the 6th century BCE. It developed as a response to the social and political collapse characteristic of this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Major philosophies of the time—Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism, and Taoism—each contained political elements. Philosophers like Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi focused on political unity and stability as the foundation of their political philosophies.
Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, merit-based government grounded in empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism supported a highly authoritarian government based on strict laws and punishments. Mohism endorsed communal, decentralized governance emphasizing frugality and asceticism. Agrarians advocated a utopian peasant communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism proposed a form of proto-anarchism. Legalism dominated the Qin Dynasty but was replaced by state Confucianism during the Han Dynasty. Before the advent of communism, Confucian state philosophy remained the dominant political philosophy in China until the 20th century.
ANCIENT ROME
Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, who advocated virtues of self-control and detachment from earthly matters, taken to the ideal of ataraxia, as a means to achieve moral and intellectual integrity. In the Stoic ideal, mastery over passions (apatheia) allows the spirit to attain wisdom. Cicero, representing orthodox Stoicism, criticized excessive rigidity of moral principles. Cicero is considered one of the most important Roman statesmen of the 1st century BCE. His major works on rhetoric and politics include De Legibus (52 BCE), discussing law and natural law as the inner voice of conscience and promoting human fraternity, and De Officiis (44 BCE), a philosophical treatise on the best way to live, act, and observe moral duties as a member of the state.
SAINT AUGUSTINE
The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key shift brought by Christian thought was the moderation of Stoicism and Roman theories of justice, emphasizing the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one does not belong to one’s own city, but is a citizen of either the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas terrena). Augustine’s City of God is an influential work attacking the view, held by many Roman Christians, that the Christian vision could be realized on Earth.
SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS
Thomas Aquinas meticulously addressed varieties of legal philosophy. According to Aquinas, there are four types of law:
- Eternal Law: “the divine governance of all things.”
- Divine Positive Law: established by God; external to human nature.
- Natural Law: the right way of living discernible by natural reason; universally knowable; inherent to human nature.
- Human Law: commonly called “law,” including customary law; the law of the Communitas Perfecta.
Aquinas never explicitly discussed canon law’s nature or categorization. There is academic debate about its place within the Thomistic legal framework. Aquinas was an incredibly influential thinker in the tradition of Natural Law.
ISLAMIC POLITICAL EVOLUTION
Through extensive study, Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina accumulated such knowledge of philosophy that Al-Farabi was called “the Second Teacher,” in reference to Aristotle, “the First Teacher.” He was a major political philosopher. In his Ideas of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City, Al-Farabi classified intellect into four types: potential, actual, acquired, and agent intellect. Potential intellect requires an external agent to move from potential to actual, an agent possessing intelligence distinct from matter. Agent intellect is likened to sunlight illuminating vision. Acquired intellect aligns with Greek philosophers’ intellect, described as active intellect.
The rise of Islam, based on both the Quran and Muhammad, significantly altered power balances and perceptions of authority in the Mediterranean. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized a strict link between science and religion and the process of ijtihad to find truth. Rationalist Mutazilite philosophers, however, placed reason above revelation, later considered the first speculative theologians of Islam, supported by a secular aristocracy seeking freedom from the Caliphate. Over time, the Asharite “traditionalist” view prevailed, subordinating reason to the Quran and Sunna.
Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Arab scholar, is considered one of the greatest political theorists. Ernest Gellner praised Ibn Khaldun’s definition of government as “an institution that prevents injustice” as the best in political philosophy history. For Ibn Khaldun, government should be minimal, as a necessary evil—coercion of men by other men.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
Medieval European political philosophy was strongly influenced by Christian thought, sharing aspects with Mutazilite Islamic thought in subordinating philosophy to theology without denying reason. Scholastics combined Aristotle’s philosophy with Augustine’s Christianity, emphasizing potential harmony between reason and revelation. Thomas Aquinas was perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe, reintroducing Aristotle (transmitted via Muslim Spain) alongside Averroes’ commentaries. Scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought until the Renaissance.
Some medieval political philosophers, like Aquinas in the Summa Theologica, argued that a tyrannical king is not a true king and could be overthrown, while others, like Nicole Oresme in Livre de Politiques, denied this right. The Magna Carta, seen as a cornerstone of Anglo-American political liberty, explicitly proposed the right to revolt against a ruler for justice. Similar documents existed in other European countries such as Spain and Hungary.
During the Renaissance, secular political philosophy emerged after about a millennium of theological political thought in Europe, as the field was predominantly scholastic and Christian.
NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI
One of the most influential works of this period was Machiavelli’s The Prince, written between 1511 and 1512 and published posthumously in 1532. Along with Discourses on Livy, it rigorously analyzed classical antiquity and shaped modern Western political thought. A minority, including Rousseau, interpreted The Prince as satire directed at the Medici family. Machiavelli supported the Florentine Republic rather than Medici oligarchy, presenting a pragmatic, somewhat consequentialist view of politics, where good and evil are means to achieve ends—namely, acquiring and maintaining absolute power.
THOMAS HOBBES
Hobbes is known for his social contract theory, extending Machiavelli’s perspective in early 17th-century English Renaissance thought. Both Hobbes and Machiavelli rejected divine right of kings but believed in inherent individual egoism, leading to a strong central power as the sole means to prevent social disorder. Hobbes’ Leviathan (1651) posits a state of nature where everyone is at war with everyone else. Through the social contract, people cede absolute sovereignty to the sovereign, ensuring order. Hobbes advocated absolutist monarchy, where the sovereign holds indivisible power and can seize subjects’ property.
JOHN LOCKE
John Locke, English philosopher and physician, is considered the father of liberalism, modern empiricism, and a precursor to Enlightenment thought. Locke argued that ideas are not innate but derived from experience, rejecting Cambridge Neoplatonists. His major works include Two Treatises of Government (1690) and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Unlike Hobbes, Locke saw no need for absolute monarchy, as natural law based on reason seeks peace and human survival.
Political Philosophy
Political philosophy is the philosophical study of governance, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of social actors and public institutions and their interrelations. Its topics include politics, liberty, justice, property, law, and the enforcement of laws by authority: what they are, what makes a government legitimate, which rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, what law is, and the rights and duties citizens have toward a legitimate government.
Political science, the scientific study of politics, is generally used in the singular in English, but in French and Spanish, the plural is used (respectively sciences politiques and ciencias políticas), perhaps reflecting the eclectic nature of the discipline.
Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy, but it has also played an important role in political science, historically focusing strongly on both the history of political thought and contemporary political theory (from normative political theory to various critical approaches).
In the Oxford Handbook of Political Theory (2009), political philosophy is described as an interdisciplinary endeavor whose center of gravity lies at the end of the humanities spectrum, with the still happily undisciplined field of political science.
For a long time, the challenge for political philosophy’s identity has been how to productively position itself in three types of placement:
- In relation to the academic disciplines of political science, history, and philosophy.
- Between the world of actual politics and its more abstract and theoretical register.
- Between canonical political theory and new resources, such as feminist theory, discourse analysis, film theory and political culture, mass media studies, neuroscience, environmental studies, behavioral sciences, and economics, which political theorists increasingly draw upon.
ANCIENT GREECE
Western political philosophy originates in ancient Greek philosophy, where the linguistic terms themselves were born. Philosophy, literally “love of wisdom” (from Greek philéin, to love, and sophía, wisdom), arose in Greece in the 6th century BCE during the classical era. Politics, from pòlis (πόλις), the city-state, as Plato asked in his work Politéia (translated as Republic, though this is a Latin term), is about how to govern social complexity in an ideal city.
Political philosophy goes back at least to Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states that experimented with various forms of political organization, which Plato grouped into five descending categories of stability and morality: monarchy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. Plato’s extremely important work on political philosophy was followed by Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and Politics, in which he wrote that politics is the end of ethical life. The life associated with the polis is a natural necessity for humans: Aristotle defines man as a political animal (zoòn politikòn), unlike beasts that can live in isolation. He adds that humans have the right to pursue happiness, and politics should provide the democratic tools to achieve it.
ANCIENT INDIA
Ancient Indian political philosophy drew a clear distinction between nation and state, religion and state. Hindu state constitutions evolved over time and were based on political and legal treaties and prevailing social institutions. State institutions were broadly divided into governance, diplomacy, administration, defense, law, and order. The main governing body of these states consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander-in-Chief of the army, and the King’s High Priest.
Chanakya was an Indian political philosopher of the 4th century BCE. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, a state espionage and surveillance system, and economic stability. Chanakya cites various authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, describing himself as a descendant of a line of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka as his immediate predecessor. Another influential existing Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a legal code in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.
ANCIENT CHINA
Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, particularly with Confucius in the 6th century BCE. Chinese political philosophy developed in response to the social and political collapse characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Major philosophies of the time—Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism, and Taoism—each contained political aspects. Philosophers like Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi focused on political unity and stability as the foundation of their political philosophies.
Confucianism advocated a hierarchical and meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism supported a highly authoritarian government based on punishments and strict laws. Mohism promoted a communal and decentralized government focused on frugality and asceticism. Agrarians supported utopian peasant communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism advocated a proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin dynasty but was replaced by state Confucianism during the Han dynasty. Before the advent of communism, state Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy in China until the 20th century.
ANCIENT ROME
Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, who valued self-control and detachment from earthly matters, taken to the extreme in the ideal of ataraxia, as means of achieving moral and intellectual integrity. In the Stoic ideal, mastery over passions (apatheia) allows the spirit to attain wisdom. Cicero criticized orthodox Stoicism for its rigidity and excessive moral inflexibility. Cicero is considered one of the most important Roman political figures of the 1st century BCE. His major works on rhetoric and politics include De Legibus (52 BCE), discussing law and natural law as the inner voice of conscience and emphasizing brotherhood among men, and De Officiis (44 BCE), a philosophical treatise presenting his conception of the best way to live, act, and observe moral duties.
SAINT AUGUSTINE
The early Christian political philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was strongly influenced by Plato. A key change brought by Christian thought was moderating Stoicism and Roman justice theory and emphasizing the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine preached that one was not a citizen of one’s earthly city, but either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas terrena). The City of God is an influential work attacking the idea, held by many Roman Christians, that the Christian vision could be realized on earth.
SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS
Thomas Aquinas meticulously addressed the varieties of law philosophy. According to Aquinas, there are four types of law:
- Eternal law – “the divine governance of all things.”
- Divine positive law – “imposed” by God; external to human nature.
- Natural law – the correct way of living discernible by natural reason; internal to human nature.
- Human law – what we commonly call “law,” including customary law; the law of the Communitas Perfecta.
Aquinas does not discuss the nature or categorization of canon law, though there is academic debate about its place within Thomistic jurisprudence. Aquinas was an incredibly influential thinker in the natural law tradition.
ISLAMIC POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Through extensive study, Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina amassed such philosophical knowledge that Al-Farabi was called “the second teacher” in reference to Aristotle, the “first teacher.” He classified intellect into four categories: potential intellect, active intellect, acquired intellect, and agent intellect. Potential intellect requires an external agent to move to actuality. The agent intellect is compared to sunlight enabling vision. Acquired intellect was associated with Greek philosophers and described as active intellect.
The rise of Islam, based on the Quran and Muhammad, altered power balances and perceptions of authority in the Mediterranean. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized a close link between science and religion and the process of ijtihad to find truth. Mutazilite philosophers, rationalists influenced by Hellenic thought, emphasized reason above revelation. The Asharite “traditionalist” view later predominated, subordinating reason to the Quran and Sunna.
Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Arab scholar, is regarded as one of the greatest political theorists. Ernest Gellner considered his definition of government as “an institution that prevents injustice” the best in the history of political philosophy. Ibn Khaldun argued that government should be minimal because it is a necessary evil: the coercion of men by other men.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
In medieval Europe, political philosophy was dominated by the Christian Church. Thinkers like Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas shaped political thought by integrating classical philosophy with Christian theology. Augustine’s City of God emphasized that earthly political systems are subordinate to divine order, while Aquinas developed a detailed theory of law (eternal, divine, natural, human) and the moral responsibilities of rulers.
Other medieval thinkers, such as Marsilius of Padua (Defensor Pacis, 1324), argued for the primacy of secular authority over church authority in temporal matters. Marsilius challenged the idea that the pope had temporal power, emphasizing instead that the legitimacy of rulers derives from the people.
NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) represents a major turning point in political philosophy. In The Prince and Discourses on Livy, he analyzed political power pragmatically rather than morally, emphasizing effectiveness and stability over virtue. He separated politics from ethics, arguing that rulers may need to use deception, coercion, and ruthlessness to maintain power and protect the state. Machiavelli’s realism marked a clear break from medieval idealism and laid the groundwork for modern political science.
THOMAS HOBBES
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), in Leviathan (1651), argued that human beings are naturally self-interested and prone to conflict. To escape a state of “war of all against all,” individuals consent to a social contract, surrendering certain freedoms to a sovereign authority in exchange for security and order. Hobbes advocated absolute monarchy as the most effective form of government to prevent societal chaos, emphasizing that the authority of the sovereign must be virtually unquestionable.
JOHN LOCKE
John Locke (1632–1704) proposed a contrasting view. In Two Treatises of Government (1689), he emphasized natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and argued that government exists to protect these rights. Legitimate authority comes from the consent of the governed, and if rulers violate the social contract, citizens have the right to revolt. Locke’s ideas influenced liberal democracy and the development of constitutional government.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
During the Enlightenment, political philosophy increasingly emphasized reason, individual rights, and secularism. Thinkers like Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot analyzed the structure of government, the separation of powers, and the principles of justice and equality. Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762) argued that legitimate political authority rests on the “general will” of the people, and freedom is achieved by participating in self-governance.
Enlightenment ideas laid the intellectual foundation for revolutions in America, France, and elsewhere, promoting democracy, citizenship, and secular legal systems.
MODERN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Modern political philosophy addresses the challenges of industrialization, globalization, and diverse societies. Key currents include:
- Liberalism: Emphasizing individual rights, democracy, free markets, and limited government (e.g., John Stuart Mill).
- Socialism and Marxism: Advocating economic equality and critiquing capitalism (e.g., Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels).
- Conservatism: Prioritizing tradition, social stability, and gradual change (e.g., Edmund Burke).
- Anarchism: Rejecting centralized authority and advocating self-managed communities (e.g., Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Emma Goldman).
- Feminist Political Philosophy: Critiquing patriarchal structures and advocating gender equality (e.g., Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone de Beauvoir).
- Critical Theory: Examining power, ideology, and social structures, often drawing from Marxist traditions (e.g., Frankfurt School, Michel Foucault).
Contemporary political philosophy also engages with environmental ethics, bioethics, postcolonial theory, and global justice, reflecting the complex, interconnected world of the 21st century. It continues to bridge normative inquiry—what ought to be—with empirical political science—what is.
PANGEANISM 